As well as external enemies, the Republic faced internal opposition from both Royalists and Jacobins and in order to deal with these threats, the French Directory took power in November 1795. The first is represented by reactionary writers who rejected the revolutionary ideals of popular sovereignty, civil equality, and the promotion of rationality, progress and personal happiness over religious faith. [64] On 13 February 1790, religious orders and monasteries were dissolved, while monks and nuns were encouraged to return to private life. Colonial landowners also gained control of the Colonial Committee of the Assembly from where they exerted a powerful influence against abolition. [62] The church was the largest individual landowner in France, controlling nearly 10% of all estates and levied tithes, effectively a 10% tax on income, collected from peasant farmers in the form of crops. "[201] Many activists were punished for their actions, while some were executed for "conspiring against the unity and the indivisibility of the Republic". [159] However, the expiration of the 12-month term for the 1792 recruits forced the French to relinquish their conquests. Belgium now had a government bureaucracy selected by merit. [217], The Jacobin cause was picked up by Marxists in the mid-19th century and became an element of communist thought around the world. [41], Alarmed by the prospect of losing control of the capital, Louis appointed the Marquis de Lafayette commander of the National Guard, with Jean-Sylvain Bailly as head of a new administrative structure known as the Commune. However, no new explanatory model has gained widespread support. [134], Deputies were chosen by indirect election, a total franchise of around 5million voting in primaries for 30,000 electors, or 0.6% of the population. The government seized the foundations that had been set up (starting in the 13th century) to provide an annual stream of revenue for hospitals, poor relief, and education. On 17th, the Law of Suspects ordered the arrest of suspected "enemies of freedom", initiating what became known as the "Terror".
French Revolution: Timeline, Causes & Dates - HISTORY These included exclusion of poorer citizens from the National Guard, limits on use of petitions and posters, and the June 1791 Le Chapelier Law suppressing trade guilds and any form of worker organisation. [146] The architect of its end was Sieys, who when asked what he had done during the Terror allegedly answered "I survived". Recognizing other peoples would have meant having to recognize their own sovereignty and thus their right to independence. The typical businessman owned a small store, mill or shop, with family help and a few paid employees; large-scale industry was less common than in other industrialising nations. [56] Jean-Jacques Rousseau, considered a philosophical founder of the revolution,[57][58][59][60] wrote it was "manifestly contrary to the law of nature that a handful of people should gorge themselves with superfluities while the hungry multitude goes in want of necessities. It actually lasted for another six years, with far more violent and momentous events . One of the first of these "pamphlets" into print was A Vindication of the Rights of Men by Mary Wollstonecraft (better known for her later treatise, sometimes described as the first feminist text, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman); Wollstonecraft's title was echoed by Thomas Paine's Rights of Man, published a few months later. Upon coming to the throne in 1774, Louis XVI inherited a kingdom beset with serious problems. [14] As a result, the court became the target of popular anger, particularly Queen Marie-Antoinette, who was viewed as a spendthrift Austrian spy, and blamed for the dismissal of 'progressive' ministers like Jacques Necker. The upshot was a revolt in 1798, led by Wolfe Tone, that was crushed by Britain. The election results were cancelled, sixty-three leading royalists deported to French Guiana and new laws passed against migrs, Royalists and ultra-Jacobins. [262], Rud and Doyle identify Jules Michelet with the democratic republican interpretation of the revolution, and Thiers, Mignet and Tocqueville with the liberal strand. This was less obvious in Paris, since the formation of the National Guard made it the best policed city in Europe, but growing disorder in the provinces inevitably affected members of the Assembly. [164], In 1789, the most populous French colonies were Saint-Domingue (today Haiti), Martinique, Guadeloupe, the le Bourbon (Runion) and the lede la France. In 1781, Louis allegedly refused to appoint him Archbishop of Paris on the grounds 'an Archbishop should at least believe in God'. Egalit! The Reign of Terror was the most violent phase of the French Revolution, a year-long period between the summers of 1793 and 1794. As a result, the Directory was characterised by "chronic violence, ambivalent forms of justice, and repeated recourse to heavy-handed repression. Others like Throigne de Mricourt, Pauline Lon and the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women supported the Jacobins, staged demonstrations in the National Assembly and took part in the October 1789 March to Versailles. [166][167], People of colour also faced social and legal discrimination in mainland France and its colonies, including a bar on their access to professions such as law, medicine and pharmacy. [38] On 12 July, the Assembly went into a non-stop session after rumours circulated he was planning to use the Swiss Guards to force it to close. 245 members were affiliated with Barnave's Feuillants, constitutional monarchists who considered the Revolution had gone far enough, while another 136 were Jacobin leftists who supported a republic, led by Brissot and usually referred to as Brissotins. [16] National taxes could only be approved by the Estates-General, which had not sat since 1614; its revenue functions had been assumed by regional parlements, the most powerful being the Parlement de Paris (see Map). Camille Desmoulins asked his followers to wear green cockades on 12 July 1789. [23], The Estates-General was divided into three parts: the First for members of the clergy; Second for the nobility; and Third for the "commons". Rgent states that the restrictions on the freedom of employment and movement of former slaves meant that, "only whites, persons of color already freed before the decree, and former slaves in the army or on warships really benefited from general emancipation." "[112] [b], At the height of the Terror, the slightest hint of counter-revolutionary thought could place one under suspicion, and even its supporters were not immune. The outcome of the French Revolution, which began in 1789 and lasted for more than a decade, had numerous social, economic, and political effects not just in France but also in Europe and beyond. As was customary, each Estate assembled in separate rooms, whose furnishings and opening ceremonies deliberately emphasised the superiority of the First and Second Estates. "The World Revolution of the West: 17631801,", McPhee, Peter. White planters loyal to the republic sent representatives to Paris to convince the Jacobin controlled Convention that those calling for the abolition of slavery were British agents and supporters of Brissot, hoping to disrupt trade. Representatives were sent to Paris to gain the approval of the Convention for the decision. [258] The influx of religious migrants also reinvigorated the local Catholic Church, with exiled priests establishing a number of parishes throughout the Canadas.[258]. [104], Key areas of focus for the new government included creating a new state ideology, economic regulation and winning the war. The Revolutionary War was a war unlike any otherone of ideas and ideals, that shaped "the course of human events." With 165 principal engagements from 1775-1783, the Revolutionary War was the catalyst for American independence. [40] In French culture, some see its fall as the start of the Revolution. [99], The Girondins hoped war would unite the people behind the government and provide an excuse for rising prices and food shortages, but found themselves the target of popular anger. The intention was for tenants to pay compensation for these losses but the majority refused to comply and the obligation was cancelled in 1793. In the trial of the Girondins, one of the main charges against them was their supposed federalism, considered by the Jacobins as a crime. [212][2] The revolution represented the most significant challenge to political absolutism up to that point in history and spread democratic ideals throughout Europe and ultimately the world. In January 1790, the National Guard tried to arrest Marat for denouncing Lafayette and Bailly as 'enemies of the people'. "[229], In the cities, entrepreneurship on a small scale flourished, as restrictive monopolies, privileges, barriers, rules, taxes and guilds gave way. New rulers were sent in by Paris. [86], Accompanying this was a campaign for war against Austria and Prussia, also led by Brissot, whose aims have been interpreted as a mixture of cynical calculation and revolutionary idealism. [191], The role of women in the Revolution has long been a topic of debate. [261], Dupuy identifies three main strands in nineteenth century historiography of the revolution. They also insisted on enforcing the rule that only those who owned land could sit as deputies for the Second Estate, and thus excluded the immensely popular Comte de Mirabeau. Since they were also subject to stringent property qualification, it guaranteed the return of conservative or moderate deputies. [79], The Legislative Assembly is often dismissed by historians as an ineffective body, compromised by divisions over the role of the monarchy which were exacerbated by Louis' resistance to limitations on his powers and attempts to reverse them using external support. [203] One major consequence was the dechristianisation of France, a movement strongly rejected by many devout people; especially for women living in rural areas, the closing of the churches meant a loss of normality. Fraternit!' that led to the removal of the French upper classes. [204] This sparked a counter-revolutionary movement led by women; while supporting other political and social changes, they opposed the dissolution of the Catholic Church and revolutionary cults like the Cult of the Supreme Being. While certainly true, many provincial areas experienced conflict over the source of legitimate authority, where officers of the Ancien Rgime had been swept away, but new structures were not yet in place. Unlike Britain, where Parliament determined both expenditures and taxes, in France the Crown controlled spending, but not revenue. However, the monarchy did not last long, rendering this a difficult endpoint for the revolution, as others followed soon. [275] He also stated that Jacobin-Marxist interpretations of the revolution harboured a totalitarian tendency,[276] but conceded that they had increased the understanding of the role of peasants and the urban masses in the revolution. [106] The new class of military leaders included a young colonel named Napoleon Bonaparte, who was appointed commander of artillery at the siege of Toulon thanks to his friendship with Augustin Robespierre. [240][241] William Coxe opposed Price's premise that one's country is principles and people, not the State itself. [54] Announcing his acceptance of the August Decrees and the Declaration, Louis committed to constitutional monarchy, and his official title changed from 'King of France' to 'King of the French'. These policies were promoted by the atheist Hbert and opposed by the deist Robespierre, who denounced the campaign and replaced the Cult of Reason with the Cult of the Supreme Being. The British take Charleston, S.C., capture a large patriot army, and deal the rebels one of their worst defeats of the war. [239]" Yet in Britain the majority, especially among the aristocracy, strongly opposed the French Revolution. [123] A middle position suggests violence was not inevitable but the product of a series of complex internal events, exacerbated by war. The latter derived rank from judicial or administrative posts and tended to be hard-working professionals, who dominated the regional parlements and were often intensely socially conservative. Uprisings followed in Bordeaux, Lyon, Toulon, Marseilles and Caen. Equality, Freedom, Democracy, sovereignty, secularism, welfare state are the ideas of the French Revolution that are still giving momentum to the world. [147] On 9 November 1799, the Coup of 18 Brumaire replaced the five Directors with the French Consulate, which consisted of three members, Bonaparte, Sieys, and Roger Ducos; most historians consider this the end point of the French Revolution.[148]. In a speech made to the convention on 26 July, he claimed certain members were conspiring against the Republic, an almost certain death sentence if confirmed. On 16 July 1789, two days after the Storming of the Bastille, John Frederick Sackville, serving as ambassador to France, reported to Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs Francis Osborne, 5th Duke of Leeds, "Thus, my Lord, the greatest revolution that we know anything of has been effected with, comparatively speaking if the magnitude of the event is considered the loss of very few lives. Ultimately these attempts not only failed but aroused a furious reaction among the pious; opposition to these changes was a key factor behind the revolt in the Vende. As long as the generals and their armies stayed away from Paris, they were happy to allow them to continue fighting, a key factor behind sanctioning Bonaparte's invasion of Egypt. [103], Meanwhile, a committee led by Robespierre's close ally Saint-Just was tasked with preparing a new Constitution. [231] Others argue the redistribution of land had an immediate positive impact on agricultural productivity, before the scale of these gains gradually declined over the course of the 19th century. [4][5], Between 1700 and 1789, the French population grew from 18million to 26million, while Paris alone had over 600,000 inhabitants, of whom roughly one third had no regular work. To understand how French came to be, we have to go back two millennia to the age of the Roman Empire. Over 72,00 slaves were still in revolt, mostly in the north. Continuing unrest culminated in the Storming of the Bastille on 14 July, which led to a series of radical measures by the Assembly, including the abolition of feudalism, the imposition of state control over the Catholic Church in France, and extension of the right to vote. Since the Council of 500 controlled legislation and finance, they could paralyse government at will, and as the Directors had no power to call new elections, the only way to break a deadlock was to rule by decree or use force. [218], The central elements of 1789 were the slogan "Liberty, Equality and Fraternity" and "The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen", which Lefebvre called, "the incarnation of the Revolution as a whole."[219]. Du Pont tried becoming a printer, but it was hard to make money, so he left for America with his family. Revolution became a tradition, and republicanism an enduring option. Although the situation remained tense, order was eventually restored, and the Royal family and Assembly left for Paris, escorted by the National Guard.
What happened to France's monarchy? - Royal Central Although the coup failed, on 2 June the convention was surrounded by a crowd of up to 80,000, demanding cheap bread, unemployment pay and political reforms, including restriction of the vote to the sans-culottes, and the right to remove deputies at will. [178], Newspapers and pamphlets played a central role in stimulating and defining the Revolution. Repetition had staled even this most grisly of entertainments, and audiences grew bored. [269][270] Albert Soboul, also writing in the Marxist-Republican tradition, published a major study of the sans-culottes in 1958. ", or "Long live the king if he keeps his word". De Lisle was instructed to 'produce a hymn which conveys to the soul of the people the enthusiasm which it (the music) suggests. These colonies produced commodities such as sugar, coffee and cotton for exclusive export to France. The French legal system, however, was adopted, with its equal legal rights, and abolition of class distinctions.
Louis XVI | Palace of Versailles [30] Although they contained ideas that would have seemed radical only months before, most supported the monarchy, and assumed the Estates-General would agree to financial reforms, rather than fundamental constitutional change. [78], Based on a motion proposed by Robespierre, existing deputies were barred from elections held in early September for the French Legislative Assembly. Among the most significant were Marat's L'Ami du peuple and Elyse Loustallot's Revolutions de Paris[fr]. [74] The royal family left the palace in disguise on the night of 20 June 1791; late the next day, Louis was recognised as he passed through Varennes, arrested and taken back to Paris. [111] Between November 1793 to February 1794, over 4,000 were drowned in the Loire at Nantes under the supervision of Jean-Baptiste Carrier. They ransacked the palace, killing several guards.
The French Revolution | History Cooperative [200], Madame Roland (also known as Manon or Marie Roland) was another important female activist. [157], From 1701 to 1801, the population of Europe grew from 118 to 187million; combined with new mass production techniques, this allowed belligerents to support large armies, requiring the mobilisation of national resources. Above all the antagonism helped stimulate and shape German nationalism. [98] Horrified conservatives across Europe called for the destruction of revolutionary France; in February the Convention anticipated this by declaring war on Britain and the Dutch Republic; these countries were later joined by Spain, Portugal, Naples and the Tuscany in the War of the First Coalition. [90] Louis and his family took refuge with the Assembly and shortly after 11:00 am, the deputies present voted to 'temporarily relieve the king', effectively suspending the monarchy. France permanently became a society of equals under the law. Meanwhile, the men who controlled the Jacobins rejected the Revolutionary Republican Women as dangerous rabble-rousers. On 30 September, the Constituent Assembly was dissolved, and the Legislative Assembly convened the next day. On 20 June, the Assembly met in a tennis court outside Versailles and swore not to disperse until a new constitution had been agreed. [89], Popular anger increased when details of the Brunswick Manifesto reached Paris on 1 August, threatening 'unforgettable vengeance' should any oppose the Allies in seeking to restore the power of the monarchy. Compare the outcomes of the American Revolution with those of later Latin American revolutions. This significantly reduced the yield from those that were approved and as a result, France struggled to service its debt despite being larger and wealthier than Britain. August 8: The royal treasury is declared empty, and the Parliament of Paris refuses to reform the tax system or loan the Crown more money. Despite this, the constitutions of 1791 and 1793 denied them political rights and democratic citizenship. The French Revolution literally redefined the word "revolution." After 1789, it meant the overthrow of a social and political order, and its replacement by something new.
When and How the French Revolution Ended - ThoughtCo In an effort to mobilise popular support, the government ordered non-juring priests to swear the oath or be deported, dissolved the Constitutional Guard and replaced it with 20,000 fdrs; Louis agreed to disband the Guard, but vetoed the other two proposals, while Lafayette called on the Assembly to suppress the clubs. Many of its ideas are considered fundamental principles of liberal democracy,[1] while the values and institutions it created remain central to French political discourse.[2]. The French Revolution (French: Rvolution franaise [evlysj fsz]) was a period of radical political and societal change in France that began with the Estates General of 1789 and ended with the formation of the French Consulate in November 1799. This created a large rentier class who lived on the interest, primarily members of the French nobility or commercial classes. Led by Bertrand Barre, Pierre Joseph Cambon and Lazare Carnot, as before this central faction acted as a swing vote. [72], The traditional force for preserving law and order was the army, which was increasingly divided between officers, who largely came from the nobility, and ordinary soldiers. [223] Demand remained strong and after 1800 nuns resumed their work in hospitals and on rural estates. [118] Many Jacobins ridiculed the festival of the Cult of the Supreme Being on 8 June, a lavish and expensive ceremony led by Robespierre, who was also accused of circulating claims he was a second Messiah. After the abdication of Napoleon III in 1871, the monarchists probably had a voting majority, but they were so factionalised they could not agree on who should be king, and instead the French Third Republic was launched with a deep commitment to upholding the ideals of the Revolution. After defeating a second Austrian army at Jemappes on 6 November, they occupied the Netherlands, areas of the Rhineland, Nice and Savoy. [233][234] The conservative Catholic enemies of the Revolution came to power in Vichy France (194044), and tried with little success to undo its heritage, but they kept it a republic. The first conscription measure or leve en masse on 24 February sparked riots in Paris and other regional centres. [245], In Ireland, the effect was to transform what had been an attempt by Protestant settlers to gain some autonomy into a mass movement led by the Society of United Irishmen involving Catholics and Protestants. The Council of 500 was responsible for drafting legislation, which was reviewed and approved by the Council of Ancients, an upper house containing 250 men over the age of 40. [188], Its operation became a popular entertainment that attracted great crowds of spectators. [255], Coverage of the Revolution in the then Province of Quebec took place against the background of an ongoing campaign for constitutional reform by Loyalist emigrants from the United States. The title of Grgoire's report presented to the convention announced its program: Report on the necessity and means of annihilating the patois and universalizing the use of the French language.[153]. Louis XVI's reign will forever be associated with the outbreak of the French Revolution and the end of Versailles' royal era. The revolt failed and Og was killed. On 20 April 1792 the French Revolutionary Wars began when French armies attacked Austrian and Prussian forces along their borders, before suffering a series of disastrous defeats. Regarding the last point, King Louis XVI's record was in doubt early in his reign, as the lack of an heir in the first seven . For their opponents, Enlightenment ideas on equality and democracy provided an intellectual framework for dealing with these issues, while the American Revolution was seen as confirmation of their practical application. Washington proclaimed neutrality instead. "[220][titlemissing], One of the most heated controversies during the Revolution was the status of the Catholic Church. "[150], Tocqueville emphasized, in L'Ancien Rgime et la Rvolution, the "immense central power" [151] created by the revolutionaries, and which Mirabeau had early rejoiced. The American Revolution brought independence for the people and long term economic success. [253], The Constitution of Norway of 1814 was inspired by the French Revolution,[254] and was considered to be one of the most liberal and democratic constitutions at the time. Its governor, Bernard-Ren de Launay, surrendered after several hours of fighting that cost the lives of 83 attackers. [44], In response, the Assembly published the August Decrees which abolished feudalism and other privileges held by the nobility, notably exemption from tax. [161], By February 1795, France had annexed the Austrian Netherlands, established their frontier on the left bank of the Rhine and replaced the Dutch Republic with the Batavian Republic, a satellite state. They were paid a wage and gained property rights. [117], The Law of 22 Prairial (10 June) denied "enemies of the people" the right to defend themselves. In 1794, under the impetus of Grgoire, by a decree of 2 Thermidor Year II, the Jacobins instituted a policy aimed at the destruction of any language or dialect other than French. Its cultural influence was also under attack, with efforts made to strip civil life of religious elements such as Sundays, holy days, saints, prayers, rituals and ceremonies. Rapid population growth and the inability to adequately finance government debt resulted in economic depression, unemployment and high food prices. On 22 July, former Finance Minister Joseph Foullon and his son were lynched by a Parisian mob, and neither Bailly nor Lafayette could prevent it. When this resulted in escalating inflation, the response was to impose price controls and persecute private speculators and traders, creating a Black market.